Jugar – Imperfect Tense Conjugation | SpanishConjugation.net
- Jugar – Imperfect Tense Conjugation | SpanishConjugation.net
- Jugar: Past Perfect Tense Conjugation Chart | Spanish Verb
- Study Past Tense: Conjugation in Present, Past & Past
- Play Past Tense: Conjugation in Present, Past & Past
- Jugar Verb Conjugation Chart: Forms of Jugar | Live Lingua
- Jugar Conjugation - 123TeachMe.com
- Jugar – Preterite (Past Tense) Conjugation
- Jugar Conjugation | Conjugate Jugar in Spanish
- Quiz & Worksheet - Jugar in the Past Tense | Study.com
- Jugar Past Tense Conjugation: Preterite & Imperfect
jugar past tense forms
jugar past tense forms - win
Overview topics/tips in Spanish tree
Since I couldn't find a list like this yet, I have created an overview of which lesson in the Spanish tree has which tips/teaches which topics*. This way, it's easier to find the right lesson if you want to practice a specific topic or want to read the tips about something again.
If there are any errors, please let me know and I'll edit this post. Also, I tried my best with the grammatical terms, but there could very well be errors in it (especially with the direct vs. indirect objects, I always have trouble telling which is which).
*These are only the topics that are mentioned in the tips, a lot of these lessons also teach some other things that are not mentioned in the tips section, so if you know some of those, feel free to let me know and I'll add them
Before first checkpoint
- Intro
- Gender of nouns
- Conjugation (present, singular forms) of ser
- Phrases
- Greetings
- Pronunciation of vowels
- Travel
- Restaurant
- Pronunciation of h, j, and q
- Using de to describe what type of food something is
- Family
- Asking questions
- tú vs. tu
- Shopping
- Pronunciation of r and rr
- Placement of adjectives
- School
- Negative statements with no
- Introduction to infinitives
- People
- Me llamo
- Adjectives depend on gender
- De dónde eres
Checkpoint 1
- Greetings
- tú vs. usted
- "Cómo te llamas" and "cómo se llama"
- ser vs. estar
- (el) señor, (la) señora, and (la) señorita
- Travel 2
- Accent marks/stress
- Conjugation (present, singular forms) of "necesitar" and "querer"
- Schedule
- Days of the week
- Pronunciation of b and v
- More about that adjectives depend on gender
- People 2
- Emphasis/stress when there's no accent mark
- Pronunciation of n and ñ
- People 3
- Talking about occupations
- Occupation words that change depending on gender
- School 2
- Plurals (only the +s ones)
- Este vs. esta
- Family 2
- Talking about age
- Numbers (1 to 10)
- Pronunciation of g
- Work
- Plural articles
- Meanings of su
- Emotions
- More ser vs. estar
- Meanings of mañana
- Reflexive verbs (present, singular forms) (with examples llamarse and sentirse)
- People 4
- Conjugation (present) of hablar and ser
- Plurals (of words ending in a consonant)
- Fashion
- Adjectives and possessive pronouns (mi, tu, etc.) change with plural nouns
- Travel 3
- Using estar for locations
- de el becoming del and a el becoming al
- Leisure
- Conjugation (present) of e-to-ie verbs (with example querer)
- Activities
- Conjugation (present) of regular verbs (with examples hablar, comer, and escribir)
- Preference
- Me gusta and te gusta
- Using de to indicate possession
- Routines
- Conjugation (present) of ir
- More reflexive verbs (present, singular forms) (with examples ducharse and levantarse)
- Talking about time using a las and ¿A qué hora?
- Tener que + inf
- Household
- Hay
- Figuring out the gender of nouns
- Ese vs. esa
- Rest. 2
- Family 3
- nos gusta, le gusta, and a ... le gusta
- Conjugation (present, 2nd/3rd plural) of llamarse (aka se llaman)
- Shopping 2
- Numbers (16 to 20)
- Cuánto cuesta
- Para mí and para ti
- Descrip.
- Recreation*
- Les gusta
- Emphasizing gustar with a mí, a ti, etc.
- Community
- The personal a (using a after verbs when talking about people)
- Conjugation (present) of conocer
- Meanings of conocer
- Phrases 2
- Conjugation (present) of tener
- Using tener where English would use to be
- Some expressions using tener
- Commun. 2
- Placement of works like me and nos (direct object)
- Querer vs. amar
- Routines 2
- Conjugation (present) of hacer and salir
- Meanings of tarde
Checkpoint 2
- Activ. 2
- Conjugation (present) of o-to-ue verbs (with examples almorzar and poder)
- Conjugation (present) of e-to-ie verbs (again) (with example entender)
- Weather
- Talking about the weather
- Months of the year
- Interest
- Conjugation/explanation (present) of interesar
- Info.
- Conjugation (present) of saber
- Meaning of saber
- Cómo se dice and cómo se escribe
- Descrip. 2
- Más/menos ... que and tan ... como
- Mejor and peor
- El/la más ...
- El mejopeor
- Travel 4
- Creating future tense with ir a
- Pronunciation of x and z
- Talking about time (cuarto and menos)
- Interest 2
- Conjugation (present, plural forms) of verbs like gustar, interesar, and encantar
- General statements
- Groceries
- Conjugation (present) of poner
- Requests
- Imperative (tú and usted forms) of regular verbs
- Routines 3
- Conjugation (present, plural forms) of reflexive verbs
- Using articles instead of possessive before body parts
- Mío, tuyo, etc.
- School 3
- Present participle (Eng: be + -ing; Esp: estar + -ando/-iendo) of regular verbs (with examples hablar, comer, and abrir)
- Present participle of verbs that have a vowel before the ending (with example leer)
- Shopping 3
- Lo, la, los, and las (direct object) and their placement
- Plans
- Placement of me, te, se, etc. (indirect object and reflexive pronouns) with an infinite verb
- Using por to talk about durations
- Que viene vs. próximo
- Activ. 3
- Verbs that require a when followed by an infinitive (with examples aprender, ayudar, and empezar)
- Using para + inf to talk about why you're doing something
- Me gustaría vs. quiero
- House 2
- Not using words like will or can in Spanish for requests and offers
- Acá vs. allá
- Placement of me, te, etc. (reflexive pronouns) in a command
- Commun. 3
- Le and les (indirect object), their use, and combining them with a ...
- Placement of nunca and nada and adding no
- Directions
- Derecho vs. derecha
- Imperative (tú and usted forms) of regular verbs (again)
- Imperative when the usted form would end in -gue
- Memories
- Introduction to preterite
- Conjugation (preterite, yo and tú forms) of regular verbs (with examples viajar, comer, and vivir), estar and ir
- Using hace to mean ago
- Farm
- Conjugation (preterite, all forms) of regular verbs (with examples viajar, comer, and vivir), estar and *ir
- Plurals of nouns ending in -z
- Rec. 2
- Conjugation (preterite, nosotros) of regular verbs (again)
- querido/a;
- Vacation
- Placement of words like con and a in questions
- A dónde becoming adónde
- Conjugation (preterite) of regular verbs (again)
- Conjugation (preterite) of hacer
- Shopping 4
- Placement of nadie and ninguno/a/os/as and adding no
- Placement of bueno and malo and them dropping the o when placed before the noun
- Descrip. 3
- Placing el or la before an adjective to say the … one
- El mío/la mía, el tuyo/la tuya, etc.
- Conjugation (present) of verbs that end in -gir or -ger (with example elegir (which is also stem-changing verb))
- Nature
- Va a haber
- Fue and fueron (preterite) can mean both went (from ir) and was/were (from ser)
- Travel 5
- Nos vemos
- Meaning of algún, algo, and alguien
- Algún becoming alguna if the noun is feminine
- Conjugation (preterite) of venir
- School 4
- Conjugation (preterite) of verbs ending in -zar (with examples empezar and almorzar)
- Conjugation (preterite) of ver
- Encontrar vs. encontrarse
- History
- Conjugation (present and preterite) of ser and ir (to show they’re the same in preterite)
- Numbers (300-999)
- Conjugation (preterite) of verbs ending in -car (with examples practicar and buscar)
- Home
- Conjugation (present) of oír
- Conjugation (preterite, singular) of gustar
Checkpoint 3
- Pref. 2
- Conjugation (preterite, plural) of gustar
- -ísimo/a
- Conjugation (preterite) of encantar
- Work 2
- Imperative (tu and usted forms) of hacer, poner, and ir
- Childhood
- Introduction to imperfect (using it to talk about to talk about what you used to do/always did)
- Conjugation (imperfect, yo and tu forms) of regular verbs (with examples jugar, comer, and vivir) and of ser
- Restaur. 3
- Buen provecho
- Conjugation (present) of e-to-i verbs (again) (with examples servir eand pedir)
- Rec. 3
- A lo mejor
- -ísimo/a/os/as
- Traditions
- Conjugation (imperfect, all forms) of regular verbs (with examples jugar, comer, and vivir) and of ser
- Social
- Cómo te/le va
- Oye and mira
- Using para to talk about a deadline
- Memories 2
- Conjugation (preterite, singular forms) of traer, tener, and decir
- Meanings of nota
- House 3
- Past participle (when used as adjective) (Eng: -ed; Esp: -ado/a/os/as) of regular verbs (with examples pintar, perder, and dormir)
- creo que deberías
- Health
- General statements that would use an -ing verb in English
- Conjugation (present) of doler
- Hay que
- Info. 2
- Conjugation (preterite) of traer, tener, and decir
- Que is not optional in Spanish like it is in English
- Descrip. 4
- General statements (again)
- Activ. 4
- Conjugation (preterite) of verbs with a vowel before ending (with example leer)
- Child. 2
- Conjugation (imperfect) of regular verbs (again), gustar, and ir
- Story
- había una vez…
- Using imperfect to say what you were doing
- Vacation 2
- Using para to talk about destinations
- Using por to talk about modes of transportation
- Narrative
- Conjugation (imperfect) of estar
- Enojado vs. enfadado
- Anecdotes
- Combining imperfect and preterite to talk about actions that were interrupted
- Work 3
- Present participle of decir, pedir, dormir, morir, ir, oír, and traer
- Meanings of pedir
- Story 2
- Using imperfect for descriptions in the past or to refer to something that has never changed
- History 2
- Conjugation (preterite, singular forms) of saber, poder, and poner
- Meanings of más
- Daily life
- Conjugation (preterite) of dormir
- Grocery 2
- Placement of lo, la, los, and las (direct objects) when there’s an infinitive
- School 5
- Placement of me, te, le, nos, les (indirect objects) when there’s an infinitive
- Hobbies
- Placement of direct and indirect objects when both are present
Checkpoint 4
- Experience
- Conjugation (present) of haber
- Present perfect (Eng: have + verb; Esp: haber + past participle) of regular verbs
- Work 4
- Saying what you were doing (Eng: was/were + -ed; Esp: imperfect + present participle) (I think it’s called the imperfect continuous tense, but not sure)
- Shopping 5
- Imperative (ustedes form) for regular verbs
- Imperative (ustedes form) of hacer and ir
- Me lo llevo
- Health 2
- Muy vs. mucho/a/os/as
- Verse
- Child. 3
- Conjugation (imperfect) of ver
- Había
- Vacation 3
- Activity 5
- Info. 3
- Le and les turning into se when in front of lo, la, los or las
- Conjugation (preterite) of dar
- Exper. 2
- Past participle of hacer, decir, poner, escribir, and ver
- Meanings of vaya
- Family 4
- -ito/a/os/as
- Meanings of llevar
- Travel 6
- Future
- Conjugation (future) of regular verbs (with examples hablar, comer, and vivir)
- Volverse
- School 6
- Anecdote 2
- Combining imperfect and preterite to talk about actions that were interrupted (again)
- Travel 7
- Meaning of tener prisa (and maybe more expressions with tener?)
- Requests 2
- Placement of lo, la, los, and las (direct objects) in a command
- Placement of direct and indirect objects when both are present in a command
- Nature 2
- Using por to say what the cause of something was
- Conjugation (preterite) of conducir
- Social 2
- Amarse
- Caer bien/mal
- El uno al otro
- House 4
- Conjugation (future) of tener, poner, salir, venir, hacer, decir, saber, poder, and haber
- Shopping 6
- (No) se puede
- Ser seguro vs. estar seguro
- Work 5
- Conjugation (future) of querer
- Pero vs. sino
- Travel 8
- Imperative (tu form) of venir, salir, tener, and irse
- Conjugation (preterite) of querer, andar, and poder
- Requests 3
- Conjugation (preterite) of saber and poner
- Le and les turning into se when in front of lo, la, los or las in commands
- Imperative (usted form) of venir and salir
- Fiction
- Conjugation (present) of verbs ending in -uir (with examples construir, incluir, and destruir)
- Meanings of mantener (and also tip about conjugation (present) of mantener)
- Descrip. 5
- Adding a mí, a ti, etc. to sentences with me, te, etc.
- Adjectives changing meaning depending on whether they’re used with ser or estar (with examples seguro (again), listo and verde)
- Requests 4
- Imperative (ustedes form) of venir, tener, salir, traer, poner, and oír
- Travel 9
Checkpoint 5
No tips
Checkpoint 6
I'm guessin no tips either, but haven't unlocked it yet, so I could be wrong.
submitted by monkeymaniac9 to duolingo [link] [comments]
Ærsk: The Phonology and Etymological Orthography of a Nordic West Germanic language
For ad werþe zen nýe Mannen, bez mann hæbbe allhjarted.
[ɸɔɾ ɑ ˈɰɛrːs̪ə ʃɲ̩ ˈnœʏ̯ːjə ˈmɑnːn̩ bəʃ ˈmɑnː ˈʃæbːə ˌɑlːˈʃɑrːtə]
for to become-inf the.m.sg new-def.m.sg Manne-the.m.sg be.fut.sg man.sg have-inf all-heart-def.n.sg
"To become God, you have to walk in everyone's shoes."
- Erish proverb
Erish (
ærsk), an
a posteriori West Germanic artlang, isn't the first constructed language I've worked on, but it is the first one I can say has come to a point where it is presentable. The concept is that, in the conworld, Erish arises from Proto-West Germanic nearby North Germanic languages as they arise from Proto-Norse, and is still in a sort of sprachbund with them. Intelligibility, particularly in speech, is hampered by Erish's own innovations, especially phonologically.
Here, I would like to provide a summary of the closest thing to a standard Erish pronunciation, as well as an account of the orthography, as its depth tells a bit about the changes that Erish has undergone. With each, I'll give a snippet about the goals I had going into them, as well as feedback questions I myself have - Erish is and will always be a work-in-progress. I am greatly indebted to a variety of resources, so I will provide several of them at the end of this post and the others that may follow it, as well as a concluding gloss.
Phonology
Most Erish speakers simply use their own dialects when speaking, up to and including the King or Queen. The pronunciation taught to foreigners, as well as the one used in national broadcasting, is that of Hamnstead, which was the city where radio broadcasting first developed in Erishland, and which is still a center of national media. The Hamnstead dialect is a Western dialect close enough to Southern dialects that its phonology is sort of a mixture of the two groups, plus its own quirks.
Goals Personally, this phonology is my attempt at creating one reminiscent of the older stages of Germanic languages, but which feels plausibly modern and plausible in a place where North Germanic contact and influence continues into present. A bit of a summary and highlights of what that means:
- The vowels, especially as phonemes, are not too dissimilar from contemporary and historic relatives, as Germanic languages were and are known for their many vowels.
- Hamnstead Erish doesn't have the /ɵ,ʉː/ of Southern Erish dialects, but the realization of /eː,øː,oː/ is similar to the Norwegian and Old Norse diphthongs. They even sort of correspond, but with the asterisk that they also correspond to Norwegian /iː,yː,ʉː/ and /eː,øː,oː/.
- The consonants may seem more akin to Spanish than Swedish, though in my view, it's a blend of the latter and Gothic. I do give props to the interpretation of Spanish /ɾ/ being ungeminated / for Erish /'s allophony, though.
- Word-initial /ɕ,j,ɧ/ in Swedish corresponds to /t͡ʃ,ʝ,ʃ/ in Erish; /ʝ/ is similar phonetically to Old English /j/. However, one word with Erish initial /ʝ/ also corresponds to Swedish /h/; initial /ʃ/ also corresponds to many Swedish /h/'s, and even a few /d/'s.
- Many of the apparent archaisms are actually re-innovations. Why cling to an old way of pronunciation when a change closer to present day can plausibly re-introduce something similar?
- Case in point: Is the [β] allophone of /b/ you lenited decades ago hard to distinguish from the /v/ you and your neighboring languages have had for centuries? Just merge /v/ with /b/!
- The only notable phonological archaisms of Hamnstead Erish, to my knowledge, are that there is still a short /æ/ from i-umlauted /a/ (something uncommon even among Erish dialects), and that Proto-Germanic *h is still pronounced as /x/ where it hasn't merged with other phonemes.
- There's /ɣ/ as well, but Dutch and Low German also preserve it. It's also a bit misleading, since /ɣ/ is actually /ɰ/. The /ɣ/ transcription is used for consistency with what otherwise varies between /ɣ/, /ɰ/, and /w/ between dialects.
Vowels Hamnstead Erish has a rather bland vowel inventory for an Erish dialect. About the only notable feature, phonemically speaking, is that there is still a short /æ/ distinct from /ɛ/, though that's typical of Western dialects. Phonetically, though, the story's a bit more complicated - Hamnstead Erish is amongst the few dialects that can be argued to, in some limited way, preserve most of the original Old Erish diphthongs, and has re-innovated a very limited form of allophonic u-umlaut.
| Front unrounded | Front rounded | Back |
Close | ɪ • iː | ʏ • yː | ʊ • uː |
Mid | ɛ • eː | œ • øː | ɔ • oː |
Open | æ • æː | | ɑ • ɑː |
- The short vowels are phonetic monophthongs
- The close vowels are near-close [ɪ,ʏ,ʊ]
- The mid-front vowels, especially /ɛ/, are mid-front [ɛ̝,œ̝]; /œ/ may also be open-mid [œ̝]
- /ɛ/ in unstressed syllables is generally [ə], though broadcasters tend towards using an [ɛ̠]
- The mid-back vowel is either open-mid [ɔ] or, less often, mid [ɔ̝]
- In unstressed syllables, it may be realized as a retracted, raised [ɞ̟˔], but this is far less common than the [ə] realization of /ɛ/. This may have to do with unstressed /ɔ/ always being morphologically associated with some marked feature, namely the feminine gender, neuter plural, and plural subject of the past tense.
- The open front vowel may be near-open [æ] or open [a]
- The open back vowel in regular syllables may vary between completely unrounded open back [ɑ], or a very weakly rounded [ɑ̜]
- /ɑ/ is fully rounded to [ɒ] if a following syllable contains /ɔ,ʊ/, or the allophone [ɒ]
- The long vowels /iː,uː/ are phonetic monophthongs [iː,uː]
- /ɑː/ is phonetically a monophthong, but may be raised [ɑ̝ː], and follows the allophonic rounding pattern of its short counterpart
- All other long vowels are realized as diphthongs
- The mid-vowels /eː,øː,oː/ are realized as closing diphthongs [ɛɪ̯ː,œʏ̯ː,ɔʊ̯ː], or [eɪ̯ː,øʏ̯ː,oʊ̯ː]
- /yː,æː/ are realized as backing diphthongs [yʉ̯ː,æɐ̯ː]
Consonants Hamnstead Erish, like most Erish dialects, has a consonant inventory that is phonemically similar to the Nordic languages, but the allophony of these consonants is less so. Voiced stops regularly lenit to approximants that devoice and fricate word-finally; this leads to the notorious "Erish hiss". Notable aspects of Hamnstead's phonology are the merger of /ʂ/ and /ɕ/ into /ʃ/, a change which is common but still absent in Southern dialects, and that /ɣ/ is a velar approximant, instead of the labiovelar common to Western dialects.
| Vclss. labial | Vcd. labial | Vclss. coronal | Vcd. coronal | Vclss. palatal | Vcd. palatal | Vclss. velar | Vcd. velar |
Nasal | | m | | n | | ɲ | | ŋ |
Stops | p | b | t | d | t͡ʃ | (d͡ʒː) | k | (gː) |
Cntnts. | f | (β) | s | (ð) | ʃ | ʝ | x | ɣ |
Laterals | | | | l | | ʎ | | |
Trill | | | | r | | | | |
- The nasals are generally realized as [m,n,ɲ̟,ŋ], with the palatal and nasal being inherently geminate. Before a coronal obstruent, they are typically realized as [ɱ,n̪,ɲ̟,ŋ].
- After a syllable initial voiceless obstruent, /n,ɲ/ are voiceless [n̥,ɲ̟̊].
- Unstressed, word-final /ɛm,ɛn/ are commonly realized as syllabic [m̩,n̩].
- Unstressed sequences of /ʃɛn/ and sometimes /t͡ʃɛn/ may be realized as [ʃɲ̩,t͡ʃɲ̩]
- Similar to many other Germanic languages, the voiceless stops /p,t,t͡ʃ,k/ are realized as aspirated [pʰ,t̪ʰ,t͡ʃʰ,kʰ] in stressed onsets if they are not preceded by a sibilant.
- The voiced stops /b,d/ are plosive [b,d̪] if they are morpheme initial, geminated, or post-nasal. Elsewhere, they lenit to the approximants [β̞, ð̞], which devoice and spirantize word-finally to /f,s/.
- The process of /d/ to /s/, in tandem with /ʝ/ to /ʃ/, is a well-known feature of Erish phonology. Uneducated Erish speakers using other languages may apply it, making the "Erish hiss".
- The voiced continuants /ʝ,ɣ/ are approximants [j,ɰ]; when geminated, they harden to stops [d͡ʒː,gː]. Similar to the voiced stops, the approximants devoice and spirantize to /ʃ,x/ word-finally.
- In emphatic speech, or speech mimicking Eastern dialects, the phonemic and allophonic voiced continuants may be pronounced as [β,ð,ʝ,ɣ], though never with the same frication as the voiceless continuants.
- The voiceless continuants /f,s,ʃ,x/ are consistently realized with strong constriction as [ɸ,s̪,ʃ,x].
- Some dialects have free variation in the realization of /f/ from [ɸ] to [f], and a few consistently realize it as the labiodental /f/.
- After a voiced stop, /f/ is realized as [v], which usually has less frication than the voiceless allophone, but is not an approximant like the phonemic voiced continuants.
- The coronal lateral /l/ is normally realized as [l], but when in contact with /t,d,s/, it is laminal denti-alveolar [l̪].
- After a voiceless consonant, it is voiceless [l̥~l̪̊].
- The palatal lateral /ʎ/ is a traditional phoneme of Erish, but younger generations outside of the South have begun to merge it with /ʝ/. It is realized as an alveolo-palatal [ʎ̟].
- After a voiceless consonant, it is voiceless [ʎ̥˖].
- The trill / is realized as a full trill morpheme-initially or when geminated; in other contexts, it is an alveolar tap [ɾ].
- After a voiceless consonant, it is voiceless [ɾ̥].
- Unstressed, word-final /ɛ is commonly realized as [ɐ].
- As described throughout, the coronal obstruents /t,d,s/ are dental [t̪,d̪,s̪]. Other dialects may use an alveolar realization [t,d,s].
- Before /k/, /s/ is usually alveolar [s].
- The palatal and velar obstruents /t͡ʃ,ʃ,ʝ,k,ɣ,x/ are all allophonically rounded to [Ḱʷ,Kʷ] before rounded vowels.
Phonotactics Valid onset consonants:
- Zero consonant
- All consonant phonemes other than /ɲ/ and /ŋ/
- Obstruent + nasal: sm, sn, ʃɲ, kn, xn
- Obstruent + continuant: tf, df, sf
- Obstruent + lateral: pl, bl, fl, sl, ʃʎ, kl, ɣl, xl
- Obstruent + trill: pr, br, fr, tr, dr, sr, kr, ɣr, xr
- Continuant + stop: sp, st, sk
- Continuant + stop + lateral: spl
- Continuant + stop + trill: spr, str, skr
Valid coda consonants:
- Zero consonant
- Consonant: m, n, p, t, t͡ʃ, k, f, s, ʃ, x, l, r
- All consonant phonemes as geminates
- Nasal + nasal: mn, ɲn, ŋn
- Nasal + obstruent: mp, nt, nd, ns, ɲt͡ʃ, ɲʃ, ŋk
- Obstruent + obstruent: sp, pt, ft, st, ʃt, kt, xt, ps, fs, ts, ks, xs, sk
- Lateral + nasal: lm
- Lateral + obstruent: lp, lt, ld, ʎt͡ʃ, lk, lf, ls, ʎʃ, lx
- Trill + nasal: rm, rn
- Trill + obstruent: rp, rf, rt, rd, rs, rt͡ʃ, rʃ, rk, rx
- Trill + lateral: rl
Valid medial consonants:
- All consonant onsets and codas above, excluding zero consonants
- If hiatus occurs, /j/ is inserted if the first vowel is front; if back, /ɣ/ is inserted.
- Nasal + obstruent: mb
- Lateral + obstruent: lb, lɣ
- Trill + nasal: rŋ
- Trill + obstruent: rb, rʝ, rɣ
All stressed syllables are inherently heavy - if there is no long vowel, the first consonant to follow is geminated. Neither long vowels nor geminates may occur in unstressed syllables.
Prosody Like most other Germanic languages, the most common syllable to be stressed is the first (and often only) of a given word. Loanwords can follow different patterns, but a rule of thumb is that the syllable before the last consonant of a root is the one to be stressed.
Feedback Questions Questions I personally have are:
- For those familiar with the phonologies of older Germanic languages as well as Proto-Germanic, does the consonant system seem like a good "modern version" of that type of phonology?
- Is it a good idea to leave all long vowels other than /ɑː,iː,uː/ as phonetic diphthongs? Would it take a short time before the diphthong allophones become phonemes of their own, or would they remain stable?
- I'm fairly comfortable with /ʝ/ devoicing and spirantizing to /ʃ/ word-finally because there are direct attestations of such final-obstruent devoicing, but is it plausible for /d/ to similarly go to /s/?
- Does anybody have a resource that consistently gives phonemic transcriptions of Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish words, especially regarding pitch-accent/stod?
Orthography & History
Erish is written with the standard 26 letters of the Latin alphabet and the additional letters þ, æ, and œ. Unfortunately, pronunciation cannot be succinctly described for Hamnstead Erish because the orthography is fairly etymological, essentially reflecting the pronunciation of Old Erish with a few simplifications and updates. It is, though, fairly regular, and the hope of Jugar Raskson, the father of modern Erish orthography, was that the written language would let as many people as possible derive their own pronunciation from the spelling.
Goals Erish orthography is essentially fighting two battles: the battle to modernize spelling and keep the rules as regular as possible, and the battle to keep important cultural and religious texts from the Old Erish period as intelligible as possible. I've looked at Icelandic and Faroese for inspiration, but also incorporated principles from languages with less orthographic depth.
- As will be seen, Erish orthography is more than willing to keep native spellings a millennium old. It is less concerned about loanwords, which may be mangled to keep regularity.
- With no small amount of resistance from traditionalists, many old graphemes have either been dropped or restricted in usage. Joches "horses", for example, used to be spelled johves.
- The use of the letter k for /k,t͡ʃ/ is actually fairly recent; the traditional letter in Erish was c, and this is still seen in the basic long forms of k, g, and h being ck, cg, and ch.
- Similarly, the use of w is a modernism; v was used for both itself and w, and this is still seen in the spellings of Cv clusters.
- Erish tries as much as it can to avoid diacritics and special characters, so it makes use of every letter of the Latin alphabet as a regular part of its orthography.
- The accented vowels are there because digraphed vowels would suggest vowels in hiatus or perhaps even long vowels.
- The letters æ and œ are used along with þ more or less out of in-universe tradition.
Vowels The following table presents the pronunciation of vowel graphemes in Erish. Note that the "jV" digraphs are only pronounced in this way if the
j is word-initial or can soften a preceding consonant:
Letter(s) | a | e, í, eì, aì | i | o, á, ú, aù, où | u, ó | y | æ, já | œ, jó, jú, ý, oì, eù |
Short | /ɑ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɪ/ | /ɔ/ | /ʊ/ | /ʏ/ | /æ/ | /œ/ |
Long | /ɑː/ | /eː/ | /iː/ | /oː/ | /uː/ | /yː/ | /æː/ | /øː/ |
- The long vowels are only used if the vowel is stressed and followed by no more than a single consonant; when there is a long vowel before multiple consonants, an apostrophe is inserted after the first consonant, as in gód't "good (n.)" /ˈɣuːst/. In all other cases, the short vowels are used.
- Several common grammatical words are pronounced in common speech with a short vowel, such as jis "ye" [jɪs], mostly because they are unstressed.
- The grave accented letters ì and ù are used to represent the second element of potential diphthongs in Erish dialects that arose from loanwords. In Hamnstead Erish, they are simply (phonemically) monophthongs.
- Because it is impossible for vowels to stand in hiatus, any sequence where two vowels stand in hiatus, such as fríen "free" /ˈfreːʝɛn/, is treated as though a g stood between the two vowels.
- The accented letters correspond to Old Erish /aː,iː,oː,uː,yː/, which shifted during the Middle Erish period. In the Hamnstead dialect, /aː,oː/ shifted to /ɔ~oː,ʊ~uː/.
- /iː,uː,yː/ merged with the Old Erish diphthongs /ɛi̯,ɔu̯,œy̯/, and then later monophthongized to /ɛ~eː,ɔ~oː,œ~øː/
- The demonstrative pronouns zó "this, that (f.)", zád "this, that (n.)", zós "these, those (f.)", zóm "these, those (dat.)" are written with acute accents, but their sound value is that of the unaccented letter. This is done to distinguish them from the definite article.
- The Old Erish glides /jaː,joː,juː/ became /æː,øː,yː/, so long as the /j/ didn't palatalize the preceding consonant and wasn't word-initial; this /yː/ would go through the process described above,
Consonants To keep Erish consonants simple, and as allophony has already been covered, their transcription here is phonemic. In educational materials for Erish, consonants are generally divided into four groups, plain, strong, weak, and the letter g, which are grouped based on whether and how they can soften.
Basic rules about consonants include:
- Consonants are long if they are not word-initial, and they are doubled, their grapheme is composed of more than one letter, or they precede another consonant without an intervening apostrophe.
- The one exception is qu, which is treated like a short consonant for both consonant and vowel length.
- Several consonants can also become fricatives word-finally if they are short.
- Before another d, s, t, frication may also occur, with the resulting consonant, in line with pronunciation rules, being long or short.
Plain consonants Plain consonants are so-called because they cannot soften under any circumstances.
Letter(s) | Hard | Fricative |
b | /b/ binde "to bind" /ˈbɪnːdɛ/ | /f/ lab "lab(oratory)" /ˈlɑːf/ |
f | /f/ faþer "father" /ˈfɑːsɛ | |
m | /m/ móte "must" /ˈmuːtɛ/ | |
ng | /ŋ/ wing "wing" /ˈɣɪŋː/ | |
p | /p/ pá "on" /ˈpoː/ | |
r | / rotte "rat" /ˈrɔtːɛ/ | |
v | /b/ virus "virus" /ˈbiːrʊs/ | /f/ livte "lived" /ˈlɪfːtɛ/ |
- V may also represent /f/ after a consonant, such as in tves "two" /ˈtfeːs/, as least in Hamnstead Erish. Erish dialects generally vary between this v representing /f/, /w/ (the original Old Erish value), or /x/.
- V otherwise reflects non-initial instances of Old Erish /f/, which was realized as [v], and later became its own phoneme. When /b/ began to be lenited to [β] around the 1700s, this facilitated the merger of /v/ with /b/ (as well as the shift of /f/ to [ɸ]).
Strong consonants Strong consonants are "strong" enough it takes a
j or
z to soften them. Because strong consonants are long when softened and non-initial, they lack soft fricative forms. They include the coronal consonants which got palatalized to retroflex consonants, though
z was retroflex for most of Erish history. The retroflex spellings tend not to occur in modern loanwords unless Henskland adopts a retroflex form; it's the only Land left that hasn't merged the retroflex consonants with the palatals.
Letter(s) | Hard | Soft | Fricative |
d | /d/ dœr "door" /ˈdøː | /ʝ/ bedje "to ask" /ˈbɛʝːɛ/ | /s/ sæd "seed" /ˈsæːs/ |
l | /l/ láte "to let" /ˈloːtɛ/ | /ʎ/ ljúht "light" /ˈʎɔxːt/ | |
n | /n/ naht "night" /ˈnɑxːt/ | /ɲ/ hænje "to hang" /ˈʃæɲːɛ/ | |
s | /s/ synge "to sing" /ˈsʏŋːɛ/ | /ʃ/ sjelv "self" /ˈʃɛlːf/ | |
st | /st/ stóren "big" /ˈstuːrɛn/ | /ʃ/ stjarne "star" /ˈʃɑrːnɛ/ | |
t | /t/ sten "stone" /ˈsteːn/ | /t͡ʃ/ sitje "to sit" /ˈsɪt͡ʃːɛ/ | |
z | /ʃ/ meze "more" /ˈmeːʃɛ/ | | |
þ | /s/ þing "thing" /ˈsɪŋː/ | /ʃ/ þjúv "thief" /ˈʃoːf/ | |
- In the definite article -ed as well as core grammatical words like ged "it" /ˈʝeː/, zad "the; that (n.)" /ˈʃɑː/, and gvad "what" /ˈɣɑː/, d is silent.
- D does not fricate after l or r, as in hald "hold (imp.)" /ˈxɑlːd/ and gard "farm" /ˈɣɑrːs/, but does after t, as in wlet'de "searched" /ˈɣleːstɛ/
- The use of j or z for softening strong consonants is largely predictable.
- J is only used at the beginning of words, whilst z is normally used word-medially.
- Word-medial palatalizing j is an indication that the verb - and it is always a verb - has an irregular conjugation that involves hardening (depalatalization).
- J, however, is always used after l or n; lz and nz indicate /ʎʃ,ɲʃ/
- Lj and nj can only soften initially if they are word-initial, or part of the onsets hlj, hnj, slj, or snj.
- Before k, n is pronounced /ŋ/, as in tank "tank (container)" /ˈtaŋːk/
- Before c, sk, tz, or z, it is pronounced as /ɲ/ as in lunc "lunch" /ˈlʊɲːt͡ʃ/
- S softens before lj and nj to /ʃ/, such as in snjó "snow" /ˈʃɲuː/
- T fricates before d, tt, or apostrophized t, as in hlot'de "allotted" /ˈxloːstɛ/
- Z reflects Old Erish /ʂ/, which was the main reflex of Proto-Germanic *z in Old Erish (some earlier instances did get devoiced to /s/ instead).
- /z/ never occurred word-initially in Proto-Germanic, but it did in Old Erish, such as in zat "the; that (n.)" (whence modern Erish zad). This developed from some instances where a weakly stressed /θ/ got voiced to [ð], which soon assibilated to /z/, which later devoiced to /ʂ/.
- Þ reflects Old Erish /s/, the main reflex of Proto-Germanic *þ in Old Erish. Around the late 900s, the original dental fricative /θ/ assibilated to /s/, but remained contrastive with /s̺/, the reflex of Proto-Germanic *s. Although this contrast was lost by the 1400s, it is still reflected in Erish orthography.
Weak consonants Weak consonants are "weak" enough that vowels can soften them in addition to
j; in instances where a soft pronunciation is used, it is either because a hard letter is used, or because there is a
v "shielding" them. They include the reflexes of the Old Erish velar consonants /x,k,sk/, as well as the labiovelars /xʷ,kʷ,skʷ/. The basic principle governing their softening is that they do so before certain vowels initially, and after other vowels elsewhere. If neither of these conditions are met, they use a hard pronunciation. It is to be noted that, barring one exception, acute accented letters have the same effects as their unaccented counterparts, and so they are not treated seperately here (grave accented vowels never soften a consonant).
Letter(s) | Conditions or example | Softens initially | Softens elsewhere | Hard |
h (short), ch (long) | Conditions | to /ʃ/ before e, i, y, æ, œ | to /ʃ/ after e, i, y, æ, œ | /x/ in all other conditions |
| Examples | himmel "sky" /ˈʃɪmːɛl/ | reht "justice" /ˈrɛʃːt/ | hús "house" /ˈxoːs/ |
k (short), ck (long) | Conditions | to /t͡ʃ/ before e, i, y, æ, œ | to /t͡ʃ/ after i, y | /k/ in all other conditions |
| Examples | kyng "king" /ˈt͡ʃʏŋː/ | rík "realm" /ˈreːt͡ʃ/ | bók "book" /ˈbuːk/ |
sk (short and long) | Conditions | to /ʃ/ before e, i, y, æ, œ | to /ʃ/ after a (not á), e, i, y, æ, œ, or a consonant | /sk/ in all other conditions |
| Examples | skíne "to shine" /ˈʃeːnɛ/ | fisk "fish" /ˈfɪʃː/ | busk "bush" /ˈbʊsːk/ |
- The use of h to represent /ʃ/ is more or less confined to native Erish vocabulary. Sk is far more common in loanwords.
- Similarly to s, h may also soften before lj and nj, as in hnjóse "to sneeze" /ˈʃɲuːse/
- Soft non-initial k is confined to native Erish vocabulary, as Eastern dialects failed to palatalize it in those conditions. Instead, c and zk are used in loanwords.
- The behavior of sk palatalizing after a but not á is because sk palatalized non-initially unless a back vowel preceded (or, technically, followed). Though in Old Erish they were phonemically /a,aː/, /a/ was not a back vowel (most likely being [ä]), but /aː/ was, being either [ɒː] or [ɔː].
Erish used to be far more inconsistent in representing when exceptions to these conditions occurred, but modern spelling is extremely regular in this regard. Soft consonants in instances where a hard consonant is expected are represented in different ways depending upon if they are initial, non-initial and short, or non-initial and long.
Desired soft consonant | Location and length | Grapheme(s) | Example |
h /ʃ/ | Initial | hj | hjarte "heart" /ˈʃɑrːtɛ/ |
| Non-initial and short | N/A | |
| Non-initial and long | hj (singular instance) | hlæhje "to laugh" /ˈxlæʃːɛ/ |
k /t͡ʃ/ | Initial | kj | kjúe "to chew" /ˈt͡ʃoːɣɛ/ |
| Non-initial and short | c | koc "coach" /ˈkoːt͡ʃ/ |
| Non-initial and long | zk, rarely kj | þækje "to think" /ˈsæt͡ʃːɛ/ |
sk /ʃ/ | Initial | skj | skjá "cloud" /ˈʃoː/ |
| Non-initial and short | N/A | |
| Non-initial and long | sc | broscyre "brochure" /ˈbrɔʃːʏ |
- The use of non-initial hj, kj is, similar to the strong consonants, a signal that the verb's conjugation is irregular and involves hardening.
- Hj is an etymological grapheme that mostly occurs in native Erish vocabulary. Hlæhje "to laugh", is the only example in Erish of a non-initial hj.
Hard consonants are represented with similar treatments, with the grapheme depending upon whether the instance is word-initial, non-initial and short, or non-initial and long:
Desired hard consonant | Location and length | Grapheme(s) | Example |
h /x/ | Initial | hv | hvint "hint" /ˈxɪnːt/ |
| Non-initial and short | x | exo "echo" /ˈeːxɔ/ |
| Non-initial and long | hh, rarely hv | sehve "to see" /ˈsɛxːɛ/ |
k /k/ | Initial | qu | quinne "woman" /ˈkɪnːɛ/ |
| Non-initial and short | qu | kliqu "clique" /ˈkliːk/ |
| Non-initial and long | kk, rarely kv | republikk "republic" /rɛpʊbˈlɪkː/ |
sk /sk/ | Initial | squ | squeìt "(ice/roller) skate" /ˈskeːt/ |
| Non-initial and short | N/A | |
| Non-initial and long | squ | fresque "fresco" /ˈɸrɛsːkɛ/ |
- Hv is irregularly used before a in native Erish vocabulary, such as in hval "whale" /ˈxɑːl/
- Medial hv, kv have similar uses to the consonant plus j digraphs, indicating that the verb's conjugation is irregular and may result in softening.
- The hv, kv, qu spellings are rooted in how Old Erish, in contrast to the rest of the West Germanic languages, never resolved labiovelars into /Kw/ sequences. Instead, these were preserved into Old Erish, and failed to palatalize. When they were lost as phonemes, they simply delabialized from /Kʷ/ to /K/, helping phonemicize the palatal allophones.
G-Consonants The letter
g is not the only consonant grapheme of the last group of Erish consonants, but the set is essentially used to indicate hardness and softness not unlike
h,
k, and
sk. It is grouped by itself because it represents
six phonemes and has less consistency in which graphemes are used to represent hardness and softness for those phonemes. In principle,
g is just the voiced counter part to
h,
k, and
sk, with the addendum that before nasals it has a nasal pronunciation that can be hard or soft; the fricativization it experiences is expectable because it is voiced.
Letter(s) | Conditions or example | Softens initially | Softens elsewhere | Hard |
g (short), cg (long) | Regular conditions | to /ʝ/ before e, i, y, æ, or œ, and another vowel | to /ʝ/ after e, i, y, æ, or œ, and another vowel | /ɣ/ in all other regular conditions |
| Regular examples | gæst "guest" /ˈʝæsːt/ | weges "ways" /ˈɣeːʝɛs/ | gá "to go" /ˈɣoː/ |
| Fricative conditions | N/A | to /ʃ/ between the vowels e, i, y, æ, and œ, and the end of a word or the consonants d, s, or t | to /x/ between all other vowels or l or r, and the end of a word or the consonants d, s, or t |
| Fricative examples | N/A | ig "I" /ˈiːʃ/ | dag "day" /ˈdɑːx/ |
| Nasal conditions | N/A | to /ɲ/ between the vowels e, i, y, æ, and œ, and n | to /ŋ/ between all other vowels or l or r, and n |
| Nasal examples | N/A | regn "rain" /ˈrɛɲːn/ | Ragnar /ˈraŋːnɑ |
- cg softens only if there is a preceding i or y, similar to k and ck.
Ideally,
g should have a regular distribution of "soft in hard contexts" graphemes and "hard in soft contexts" graphemes, but the reality is that etymology means different graphemes are used in what should be regular contexts. Nonetheless, there aren't so many graphemes in use:
Desired consonants | Location and length | Grapheme(s) | Example |
Soft g (/ʝ/, /ʃ/, /ɲ/) | Initial | j, gj (less common) | jorþ "earth" /ˈʝɔrːs/, gjos "they (f.)" /ˈʝoːs/ |
| Non-initial and short | j | garaj "garage" /ɣaˈrɑːʃ/ |
| Non-initial and long | zg, gj (rare) | brizg "bridge (game)" /ˈbrɪʝː/ |
Hard g (/ɣ/, /x/, /ŋ/) | Initial | w, gv | gvad "what" /ˈɣɑː/, west "west" /ˈɣɛsːt/ |
| Non-initial and short | w | intriw "intrigue" /ɪnˈtriːx/ |
| Non-initial and long | gg | rigg "rig" /ˈrɪɣː/ |
- Gj is mostly confined to native Erish vocabulary, and is not particularly common initially, and even more so non-initially. As with other Cj graphemes, non-initial gj indicates irregular conjugation.
- J is the main grapheme for representing soft-g in hard contexts, and g for representing regular soft-g, but there exceptions like Jesu "Jesus".
- In native Erish vocabulary, gv is restricted to wh-words such as gvad "what", but it is regularly used in loanwords when the donor language has g, such as gverilja "guerrilla" /ɣɛˈrɪʎːa/.
- The wh-words in Erish were originally /xʷ/, but underwent the same vocalization as the third-person and demonstrative pronouns, making Old Erish have /ɣʷ/ as a marginal phoneme, until it delabialized during Middle Erish.
- W is the main consonant used to represent initial hard-g in native Erish vocabulary, and is more rare with loanwords. However, it is mandatory in non-initial, short contexts, much like j.
- W was originally /w/ in Old Erish. It merged with /ɣ/ as a consequence of the fricative leniting to an approximant, effectively making /w/ first merge with /ɣʷ/, and then delabialize /ɣ/.
- Similar to the situation with k, long /ɣː/ failed to palatalize in Eastern dialects, and so zg is used, even though the grapheme is redundant in Hamnstead Erish.
Feedback Questions Questions I personally have are:
- Does the type of spelling I have decently blend etymological orthographies like Icelandic and more phonemic ones? I recognize this is more an aesthetic question, but I'm interested in opinions.
- One area I wonder about in particular is whether j and w should be used for representing non-initial /ʝ/ and /ɣ/. In my mind, they make sense since they are representing approximants, but w strikes me as rather... odd.
- Do the phonological developments seem like a good mixture of sharing some of the innovations that occurred in Norwegian and Swedish and Erish following its own path?
- I know a sibilant like [ʐ] (the likely realization of Proto-West Germanic *z, if not Proto-Germanic *z) devoicing to /ʂ/ isn't abnormal. However, given how universal the change of /z/ to / was throughout the surviving Germanic languages, how plausible is it to have Erish do this?
Resources
This last section is dedicated to the resources I think have been most useful in the creation of Erish, and that are valuable to people looking to make a Germanic language, or even a conlang in general. I'm certain some of these sources will be familiar to many members of this sub, but they're there for those to whom they aren't:
- Agee, A Glottometric Subgrouping of the Early Germanic Languages - This thesis provides a pretty good overview of how the Germanic languages developed at their earliest stages after Proto-Germanic. Even if you're not trying to make a Germanic language, I can't imagine that this wouldn't give you at least some ideas.
- Index Diachronica - Index Diachronica is a good site in concept and mostly in implementation. If you want to search for a general to sometimes comprehensive idea of the phonological histories of languages, or how certain phonemes tend to change over time, this is a good place to stop by.
- I got a history of Proto-Norse to Old West Norse here, although I wound up having to directly go and sift through the """""human-readable""""" source because ID wasn't clear at times (and apparently misinterpreting at points). That's the major problem with ID - its sources or interpretation of those sources may be "sketch" or incomplete, to say the least.
- Jackson Crawford - It's one thing to read internet articles, or even textbooks about old Germanic languages. It's another to have some sort of access on demand to somebody who can actually explain to laypeople an old Germanic language, much less its culture. I cannot recommend his channel enough as a starting and reference point for somebody interested in Germanic conlanging, especially if you're going for a (sort-of-)North Germanic language.
- Ringe, A Linguistic History of English, vols. 1 & 2 - If you are looking for information about old Germanic languages, these are some of the best materials to look through for vocabulary, morphology, and phonology. Erish would not exist as it does without Ringe's reconstruction of Proto-West Germanic in Vol. 2, much less the far more consistent account of the phonological history of Northwest and West Germanic than is available on Wikipedia.
- Simon Roper - Though I can't say Simon has been as much a resource for me as Dr. Crawford - and as Simon himself acknowledges, his field is archaeology, not linguistics - he still provides good material about the phonological history of English, and information about Old English.
- Wikipedia - Wikipedia has articles about all manner of languages and their phonology, grammar, vocabulary, orthography, and so on (much less articles about those in and of themselves). Although obviously I've mainly relied on Germanic languages, I would be remiss to say that one should look exclusively at a particular family. Case in point, /d,ʝ/ devoicing and spirantizing to /s,ʃ/ was a feature inspired by Nahuatl.
- Wiktionary - Wiktionary has multiple features which are extremely useful. Beyond a Proto-Germanic category and Germanic Swadesh list appendix, Wiktionary has an immensely handy feature where translations are often provided through individual senses of English words - anybody wanting to reduce relexing should take note.
Conclusion
It's been a long post, so I won't take up so much more space. Seeing as how it's a common enough translation in initial posts, though, I would like to provide the Lord's Prayer in Erish:
Written Erish: Faþern osren, Hlárden gwen bez í Hjomn,
Be namen zín werþe heligende;
Be ríked zítt kome;
Be wiljo zí skehe pá jorþo zí som í Hjomn;
Be geve til oss í dag ossert daglige brod,
end forláte oss skuldostos osros sá som wid forláte osros skuldos;
End be bringe ick pá oss í fresnos, men frælse pá oss frá yvel.
Zítt bez ríked, end mahten end ero í œighedo.
Amen.
Hamnstead Erish pronunciation: [ˈɸɑːs̪ɐn ˌɔs̪ɾn̩ ˈxl̥ɔrːd̪n̩ ɰn̩ bəʃ ˌɛɪ̯ ˈʃɔmːn]
[ˈbɛɪ̯ː ˈnɑːmn̩ ˌʃɛɪ̯n ˌɰɛɾs̪ə ˈʃɛɪ̯ːlɪjn̪̩d̪ə]
[ˈbɛɪ̯ː ˈrɛɪ̯ːt͡ʃə ˌʃɛt̪ ˈkʷʰoːmə]
[ˈbɛɪ̯ː ˈɰɪʎ̟ːɔ ˌʃɛɪ̯ ˈʃɛɪ̯ːʃə ˌpɔʊ̯ ˈjʷɔrːs̪ə ˌʃɛɪ̯ s̪ɔm ˌɛɪ̯ ˈʃɔmːn]
[ˈbɛɪ̯ː ˈjɛɪ̯ːβ̞ə ˌt̪il ˌɔs̪ ˌɛɪ̯ ˈd̪ɑːx ˌɔs̪ɐt̪ ˈd̪ɑːxˌlijə ˈbɾoːs̪]
[n̪̩d̪ ɸɔɾˈlɔʊ̯t̪ə ˌɔs̪ ˈs̪kʷʊl̪ːd̪ɔs̪t̪ɔs̪ ˌɔs̪ɾɔs̪ ˌs̪ɔʊ̯ s̪ɔm ˌɰi ˈɔs̪ːɾɔs̪ ˈskʷʊl̪ːd̪ɔs̪]
[n̪̩d̪ ˈbɛɪ̯ː ˈbɾɪŋːə ˌɪt͡ʃ pɔ ˌɔs̪ ˌɛɪ̯ ˈɸɾ̥eːs̪ˌnɔʊ̯s̪ mn̩ ˈɸɾ̥æl̪ːs̪ə pɔ ˌɔs̪ ˌɸɾ̥ɔʊ̯ ˈyʉ̯ːβ̞l̩]
[ˌʃɛt̪ bəʃ ˈrɛɪ̯ːt͡ʃə n̪̩d̪ ˈmɑxːt̪n̩ n̪̩d̪ ˈɛɪ̯ːɾɔ ˌɛɪ̯ ˈœʏ̯ːˌjiˌʃːɛɪ̯s̪ɔ]
[ˈɑːmɛ̠n]
Gloss: father-the.m.sg our.incl-m.sg lord-the.m.sg who.m.sg.dir be.fut.sg in Heaven
be.fut.sbjv name-the.m.sg thy.m.sg become-inf sanctify-ptcp.prs.m.sg
be.fut.sbjv realm-the.n.sg thy.n.sg come-inf
be.fut.sbjv will-the.f.sg thy.f.sg happen-inf on earth-the.f.sg thy.f.sg as in Heaven
be.fut.sbjv give-inf to us.incl.dat in day our.incl-n.sg daily-def.n.sg bread
and forgive-inf us.incl.dat guilt-the.f.pl our.incl-f.pl so as we.excl forgive-inf our.incl-f.pl guilt-pl
and be.fut.sbjv bring-inf not acc us.incl.acc in temptation but free-inf acc us.incl.acc from evil
thine be.fut.sg realm-the.n.sg and power-the.m.sg and glory-the.f.sg in eternity-the.f.sg
amen
English translation: Our father, the Lord who will always be in Heaven,
May it always be that thy name sanctifies itself;
May it always be that thy kingdom comes;
May it always be that thy will comes upon your Earth as in Heaven;
May it always be that thou givest us our daily bread,
and forgive our guilts for us, as we forgive our guilts;
And may it always be that thou dost not bring us into temptation but free us from evil.
Thine will always be the kingdom, and the power and the glory in eternity.
Amen.
Notes about the translation:
- In essence, bez in this Prayer is used for "(will always) be...", and be for "(may it always be that)...". Bez and be are the future tense forms of weze ("to be") (the only verb with them), but this tense is often gnomic, indicating a timelessness and fundamental-fact-of-the-universeness.
- Be is used here as a relic subjunctive with optative mood. In Erish, it is often used in prayers - Christian, Ardist (the native Erish religion), or otherwise - as a sort of "polite asking".
- Hjomn "(Christian) Heaven" in lines 1 and 4 is, similar to many Erish terms relating to Christianity, a loanword from Old Anglic (English) heofon, and is a doublet of Erish himmel ("sky")
- Werþe heligende (lit. "become sanctifying") in line 2 is an analytic mediopassive voice construction, similar in function to the -s suffix of North Germanic languages.
- When the consistently inclusive "we" (Christians and non-Christians) throughout the prayer changes to the exclusive wid in line 6, it indicates that Christians forgive everybody's guilts.
- Christianity never really took off in Erishland beyond the Allamunnic minority, and "wasn't particularly cared for" until recently.
- Pá "(up)on" is used here as a direct object marker for "us" in line 7. In Erish, pá is used for animate direct objects.
submitted by Phalanx-Spear to conlangs [link] [comments]
An extensive, RAE-endorsed explanation of the differences between ser and estar
Okay, so the RAE didn't literally endorse this Reddit post, but the following is more or less an English-translated summary of the sections in their
Nueva gramática de la lengua española that detail the difference between these two verbs that cause so many problems for non-native speakers. I'm an Australian citizen and Mexican resident, I study a BA in Hispanic Literature at the University of Guadalajara, I privately tutor a few other expats living in the city, and I'm currently using the summer vacations to prep for the DELE C2, which I hope to take at the end of the year. This is an end-of-semester project in which I had to explain a grammatical topic with apples and oranges, and for which I was given 100. I've just rejigged it for an English-speaking audience. If you're a learner or non-native speaker of Spanish, I hope this helps dispel some doubts for you. Even if you're a native, you might learn something interesting, so read on!
The most common explanation, the one that abounds in internet forums for Spanish learners, is that
ser means "permanent" and
estar means "temporary". Most native speakers give this explanation, but that doesn’t change the fact that it is plainly, objectively incorrect. It is true that
usually sentences with
ser refer to something more or less permanent and
usually sentences with
estar refer to something impermanent, which is why this myth gets propagated so much, but as the saying goes,
correlation does not imply causation. Here is an example of a sentence with
ser which is definitely not permanent:
Soy estudiante de Letras Hispánicas de segundo semestre. As soon as the semester finishes, this is no longer true. Conversely,
Martin Luther King está muerto is very much a permanent situation, despite using
estar, so permanent vs temporary is clearly not right.
Let’s look at the following two sentences:
El muchacho es alto.
El muchacho está alto.
First things first: both of these sentences are grammatically correct, and both of them plant the idea of a tall boy in the listener’s mind. So what’s the difference between them then? Focus.
El muchacho está alto isn’t trying to say that the boy is temporarily tall, and that he’ll be short again tomorrow. That’s just ridiculous. Rather, using
estar focuses our attention on one of two things: the boy is taller than he was, or taller than the speaker had expected him to be. And that is essentially the nuts of
estar:
a state that has come about as the result of a process of change, or a state that is in some way circumstantial, or a state that flies in the face of our expectations. This isn’t all there is to know about
estar, but when it comes to using
estar with an adjective, this is pretty much the essence of it. The other sentence, then,
El muchacho es alto is focusing on
an intrinsic characteristic of the boy: he is a definitively tall boy. An example to illustrate, but not restrict, the prior explanation: if the boy is 6’7”, without a doubt,
el muchacho es alto. Few people grow to that height, so at any time of his life, in any company, he is tall. On the other hand, if at 11 years old, he’s 5’8”,
el muchacho está alto, because while 5’8” isn’t all that tall in the grand scheme of things, it is quite tall for an 11 year old boy, certainly taller than we would expect. If the boy is 6’7”, you can still say
El muchacho está alto. You’d just be focusing on his growth and change, or on your own surprise at his height, rather than the absoluteness of
El muchacho es alto.
You may have noticed that
estar carries more semantic weight than
ser. Neither of the two words are really very heavy with meaning, since they’re both copulative verbs at the end of the day, whose job is simply to link two lexical elements, but you should be able to see that
estar does have a little more nuance behind it than
ser.
---
This is the
TL;DR line. Everything above is the main argument. Everything below is a supporting detail. If you're still a beginner, you should definitely stop here to avoid overloading yourself with too much information.
Of course, it gets more complicated than that. When qualifying a group (when dealing with plural nouns),
ser applies to the group in its totality, whereas
estar only takes on meaning if referring to a specific portion of the group recognisable to the listener. Let’s look at these two examples to see what I mean:
Los perros son lindos. - Dogs are cute or lovely in general.
Los perros están lindos. - The specific dogs in question are cute or lovely. Again, the aforementioned applies about inherent vs resultative or circumstantial. The dogs could be looking lovely because they’ve just been bathed, for example, which would constitute a process of change.
Let’s look at another example:
Los tacos son ricos. - Tacos, in general, are delicious. It’s an inherent characteristic. This doesn’t necessarily mean that every taco ever made is delicious, but that they generally are.
Los tacos están ricos. - That is, the ones I’m eating right now. They’ve gone through a process of change (being prepared by the taquero), and they’ve attained a delicious state.
NOTE: this rule doesn’t apply when the adjective is a participle. In this case,
estar is used to apply an attribute to the total group, since
ser with a participle would form the passive voice. So
Los perros están prohibidos means that dogs, all dogs, are prohibited.
Since I’ve just mentioned the passive voice, this is always formed with
ser. This is a set construction of the language, just like it is in English:
La víctima fue agredida por un sujeto en motocicleta/The victim was assaulted by an individual on a motorcycle. This construction is used frequently in newspaper Spanish, although it is also useful when we don’t know or don’t care who performed an action:
El agave es cultivado para hacer tequila (por miles de personas). Of course, Spanish also has the impersonal passive, with
se, but that is beyond the scope of this lesson.
Only
ser can be used with nouns, while only
estar can be used with adverbs. So,
Soy estudiante is correct, but *
Estoy estudiante isn’t. On the other hand,
Estoy bien is totally fine, but
\Soy bien
definitely isn’t. In an example like *Estás burro (literally: "You are donkey", an affectionate way of calling someone silly in Mexico and possibly other countries),
burro is acceptable because it’s actually functioning as an adjective. Even the great Cervantes converted nouns into adjectives with
estar:
Muy filósofo estás, Sancho (Cervantes, Quijote II). This literally means, "Very philosopher you are, Sancho", which we can take to mean that Sancho was speaking or behaving very philosophically in that moment.
There is one other situation in which you can use
estar with a noun, and that is to indicate the presence of someone or something. In this case, an adverb of location, such as
aquí or
ahí, is always implied. So
Estamos cinco means five of us are present, whereas
Somos cinco means we are five people or, in more natural-sounding English, there are five of us.
Somos cinco en mi familia: madre, padre, mis dos hermanas, y yo. If you ask
¿Está el jefe?, you’re asking if the boss is here (if you’re speaking face-to-face) or if the boss is there (if you’re speaking over the phone). Contrast this to
¿Es el jefe? which is asking if someone
is the boss.
For expressions of place,
ser identifies a place, whereas
estar localises it. What does this mean?
Aquí es mi casa. - This (place) is my house. I’m saying what the place is.
Aquí está mi casa. - My house is (located) here. I’m saying where the place is. Notice how this is once again a use of estar to express a permanent state (unless your house is a campervan, of course).
We always use
estar for localising objects, as in:
Mis llaves están en mi casa.
On the other hand, for denoting the place where an action or event is carried out, we must use
ser:
La fiesta es en mi casa.
The question of identifying vs localising also extends to time:
Hoy es jueves. - I’m identifying today as Thursday. This applies for any period of time. Es junio. Es 2020. Es el siglo XXI. Es la una y media de la tarde. Son las nueve de la noche.
Estamos a jueves. - I’m localising us: we’re “in” Thursday.
Many adjectives change their meaning if combined with
ser or
estar. There is, however, often (although not always) a logical connection between the different meanings based on the canonical meanings of
ser as inherent or defining and
estar as a resultative, perceived or circumstantial state.
Pedro es listo. - Pedro is clever. (I like to think of this as being inherently ready for almost anything due to his cleverness; it’s a satisfying explanation for my English-speaking mind.)
Pedro está listo. - Pedro is ready.
Estudiar es cansado. - Studying is tiring or tiresome.
Martha está cansada. - Martha is tired.
Tu mamá es buena. - Your mother is a good person, or perhaps she has good abilities for raising her children.
Tu mamá está buena. - It’s probably best that you don’t say this to anyone, ever. (It means "Your mum is hot.")
There are lists of these adjectives that can be searched on the internet or in grammar manuals. None of them, not even the one in the Real Academia´s behemoth 6700-page
Nueva gramática de la lengua española, are exhaustive, but they do usually cover the most common and important ones, and from there you can use your logic to figure out the rest as you go.
Another key distinction with adjective use is personality (
ser) vs mood or circumstantial behaviours (
estar). Let’s examine another pair of examples:
Catalina era valiente y decidida. - Catalina was brave and resolute. This is her personality. Combining the adjectives with ser paints them as inherent characteristics of Catalina: her personality.
Catalina ha estado muy valiente frente a la situación; está decidida a seguir luchando por la justicia. - Here we are talking about behaviours that arise due to a particular circumstance: she has been brave and determined to overcome the situation that she is confronting.
However, when the behaviour comes to affect other people, we use
ser with the preposition
con. For example,
La maestra ha sido muy indulgente con nosotros. The teacher has been very lenient with us. She may not always be lenient, but with us she has been.
Think about
Joaquín es triste and
Joaquín está triste. One of them is saying that Joaquín is a sad, melancholic guy, while the other is saying he’s upset due to the circumstances: his dog died or something. This also explains why
Soy feliz is congruent. The happiness might not last forever. One day you might be lonely and broke with no hope for the future, but for the time being, your average mood is positive.
Estoy feliz, once again, would be the result of a circumstance.
Estoy feliz porque mi prima vino a visitarme.
Impersonal statements that follow the structure
It’s + adjective + that in English or
It’s + a/an + noun + that follow the same structure in Spanish with
ser:
Es evidente que has mentido.
Es una lástima que haya tanta corrupción.
Just like the earlier example about the lovely dogs, this sentence structure requires
estar if the adjective is a participle:
Está comprobado que el universo se expande.
An exception to this rule is the adjective
claro, which can be used with either
ser or
estar without any significant change in meaning.
Es/Está claro que te gusta jugar con mis sentimientos.
Equative sentences –sentences which essentially say that one thing equals another– use
ser. These order of these sentences is reversible, and they require the use of a definite article (
el/la/los/las). For example,
Fabián es el ganador or
El ganador es Fabián. Furthermore, sentences with infinitive complements always use
ser, such as
Eso es sufrir. On the topic of set sentence structures,
estar is always used in the progressive tenses, to describe an action that is currently under way –
Estoy aprendiendo latín– or to describe the action of a given moment in the past or future:
Estaba caminando por la calle cuando se escuchó la balacera. En una semana más, estaré festejando el fin del semestre.
Ser is always used to mention someone’s profession or occupation, such as
Juan es médico, or my original example,
Soy estudiante de Letras Hispánicas de segundo semestre. Temporary jobs can, however, be mentioned with the expression
estar de, as in the example
Estoy de repartidor de comida, pero en realidad, soy ingeniero aeroespacial. (I’m working as a food delivery man, but I’m really a rocket scientist).
We use
ser de to talk about the origin of something or someone:
Soy de Sídney.
Estos cigarros son de Cuba.
To mention the material with which something is made, we can also use
ser de, as in
Este escritorio es de madera or
Las Macbooks son de aluminio. However, we can express more or less the same information with a slightly different focus using the phrase
estar hecho/a de:
Este escritorio está hecho de madera.
Las Macbooks están hechas de aluminio.
This is congruent with our baseline uses of
ser (inherent characteristic or state) and
estar (state achieved as a process of change; in this case, being made is the process of change).
Finally, when we want to say that something is or seems a certain way for or to someone, or talk about the impression something has on us, we use
ser with an indirect object pronoun (me, te, le, nos, os, les)
Esto me es molesto/útil/interesante.
Espero que esta explicación les haya sido útil.
Let's go back, then, to the first example of
estar that I used:
Martin Luther King está muerto.
This was the first sentence that made me realise that
estar isn't necessarily temporary, but now I know that it is congruent, because it describes a state achieved through a process of change. Life is the process. The end of the process, death.
So, that's just about it. If you have any doubts or disagree with anything that I've said above, feel free to comment below, and I'll be happy to share the relevant documentation with you.
---
Principal Reference Real Academia Española. (2011).
Nueva gramática de la lengua española. Sintaxis II. (subsections 37.7a-37.9t). Barcelona, Spain: Espasa Libros.
Additional References Bradley, P. & Mackenzie, I. (2004).
Spanish: An Essential Grammar (pp 211-212). London, UK: Routledge.
Butt, J. & Benjamin, C. (1994).
A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish (2nd Edition, pp 375-381). London, UK: Routledge.
Kattán Ibarra, J. & Pountain, C. (2003).
Modern Spanish Grammar: A Practical Guide. (2nd Edition, pp 103-107). London, UK: Routledge.
Larousse. (2010).
Gramática de la lengua española (subsections 158 & 161). Barcelona, Spain: Larousse.
Ser and Estar - The No-Nonsense Guide. (2016). Recovered from:
https://itsnachotime.com/ser-esta submitted by donnymurph to Spanish [link] [comments]
A Summary of the Imperfect (Imperfective Aspect) - Part 2
Hi, there!
In the last post, we summarized the three main features of the imperfect. Now, let's talk about the most problematic aspect of the imperfect.
A TL;DR will be placed at the bottom for your convenience.
-----
Here are the examples from the last post expressing the three main features of the imperfect:
- Cuando ella era niña, jugaba/solía jugar al baloncesto. (When she was a kid, she used to play/would play/played basketball.)
- Mientras hablábamos/estábamos hablando, nuestro hermano entró al cuarto. (While we were talking, our brother entered the room.)
- Ella era pequeña cuando fue a Alemania. (She was small when she went to Germany.)
Recall the following from the last post:
- In Spanish, situation 1 can be expressed with either the bare imperfect form or with "solía" and the infinitive. In English, "used to" with the bare infinitive is analogous to "solía" with the infinitive. "would" with the bare infinitive can also be used as a habitual marker in this context. ("would" is NOT a marker for the conditional mood here.)
- In Spanish, situation 2 can be expressed with either the bare imperfect form or with the imperfect progressive. In English, only the past progressive is applicable here.
- In Spanish, situation 3 can be expressed only with the bare imperfect form. In English, only the past simple works here.
...and there, you have the most problematic aspect of the imperfect: situation 3. Unlike in situations 1 and 2, where forms other than the past simple can be used, situation 3 works only with the past simple.
Now, in Spanish, this isn't a big deal because the past simple still has two forms left: the bare preterite and the bare imperfect. Thus, you can just rely on the verb ending to tell you whether or not the situation here is imperfective.
However, in English, the past simple has only one form, and it is mapped to
both the perfective and the imperfective. Yikes! That's unfortunate! Since there are no other verb forms available, you have to rely on the context to tell what's imperfective and what's not.
Sometimes, this is pretty easy to do. For example:
"I
had good news this morning."
This verb is clearly perfective. It expresses a completed state.
Another example:
"The girl
was so beautiful when she
was a teenager."
The first verb is clearly imperfective, unless you want to imply that the girl's beauty was acquired and not a state in progress during her youth. Then, that would be weird.
The second verb is also clearly imperfective, as the girl's being a teenager was also a state in progress, not an acquired state for a limited time.
Sometimes, you can change the verb itself to convey a more obvious perfective meaning as long as the new verb has the same meaning as the original verb. Here are some examples:
- "Max was worried when his mom came home." - "Max became worried when his mom came home."
- "We were scared when the teacher yelled at us." - "We got scared when the teacher yelled at us."
- "That's when I knew...that I screwed up." - "That's when I realized...that I screwed up."
Here, all verbs express the end of a previous state and the beginning of a new state. Thus, they are all evidently perfective.
Okay. So far, telling what's perfective and what's imperfective from the context doesn't seem so hard.
Ah, but what about situations like this?
"How
did you
know?"
Well, shoot! Now, how are we supposed to decide what's perfective and what's imperfective? It's not as though we can just change the form of the verb!
Don't worry. If we try thinking through the example and translating it to Spanish, we might have our answer.
Actually, "How
did you
know?" can be either perfective or imperfective, so you have these two options:
- ¿Cómo lo supiste?
- ¿Cómo lo sabías?
So, what on earth is the difference between the two?
The first question focuses more on how you gained knowledge of something. In other words, it's asking when you began to know (or realized) something.
In contrast, the second question focuses more on how you had prior knowledge of something. It's asking how you already knew about something.
I'll provide some additional context to illustrate the difference. For the first one:
- Robert: No sé cómo responder a esta pregunta de matemáticas. (I don't know how to answer this math question.)
- Jorge: ¡Sé la resquesta correcta! (I know the correct answer!)
- Robert: ¿Qué? ¿Cómo lo supiste? (What? How did you know?)
- Jorge: Fue muy fácil. (It was easy.)
For the second one:
- Alex: Hola, David. Quiero presentarte a alguien. Esta es... (Hi, David. I want to introduce you to someone. This is...)
- David: Ya sé. Ella es Chloe, tu prima. (I already know. She is Chloe, your cousin.)
- Chloe: ¿Cómo lo sabías? (How did you know?)
- David: La madre de Alex me habló de tí. (Alex's mother told me about you.)
In the first example, the beginning of knowing something is conveyed as there is no implication of prior knowledge. In other words, the sentence
"¿Cómo lo supiste?" really means "How did you
begin to know?"
In the second example, the reverse is true. The possession of prior knowledge is conveyed, not the acquisition of it. In other words, the sentence
"¿Cómo lo sabías?" really means "How
did you
already know?"
In Spanish, these meanings are made more evident with verbal inflections. In English, you have to guess these meanings from the context, which, again, can be quite difficult to do.
-----
Okay, so English sometimes relies on context for perfective/imperfective meanings whereas Spanish uses verbal inflections to do the same thing. What is the significance of this?
Well, let's look at the very first examples again. This time, we'll remove the verbs from all of the sentences.
- Cuando ella _____ niña, _____ al baloncesto. (When she _____ a kid, she _____ basketball.)
- Mientras (nosotros) _____, nuestro hermano _____ al cuarto. (While we _____, our brother _____ the room.)
- Ella _____ pequeña cuando _____ a Alemania. (She _____ small when she _____ to Germany.)
When conveying perfective/imperfective situations, English and Spanish use syntax that is essentially identical. The only difference between these sentences in the two languages is how the verbs encode verbal aspect.
In Spanish, verb morphology is used to convey the preterite/imperfect distinction. Periphrasis ("solía" + infinitive) and the progressive aspect (-ando/-iendo verbs) are also available for use.
However, English doesn't use verbal morphology to express the preterite/imperfect distinction. Instead, English uses context, periphrasis ("used to" + infinitive), the progressive aspect (-ing verbs), and sometimes altogether different verbs to express the difference. Essentially, English has more ambiguous, roundabout ways of expressing the contrast.
All of this implies that English speakers already know the difference between the preterite and the imperfect. In other words, their sense of P/I is just as good as any native Spanish speaker, so they don't need to acquire the imperfect as a new feature.
So, what's the issue, then? English speakers just don't know which Spanish verb form to use to express the P/I difference, which makes sense as they're not used to marking such aspects with morphology.
That's okay, though. With quality exposure to the language, English speakers will eventually "remap" the intended meanings of the past tense verbs onto the correct morphological forms.
This is entirely possible. So, don't get discouraged. The preterite/imperfect contrast is
acquired late for second-language learners, so with time, you'll eventually master it. You just need to keep listening to comprehensible Spanish.
-----
TL;DR -- Both English and Spanish make the perfective/imperfective distinction. English just has clunkier ways of expressing the distinction due to the lack of corresponding verbal morphology.
However, the P/I contrast in Spanish
can be
acquired. In fact,
English speakers can gradually learn to "remap" their verbs in the past tense onto the correct morphological forms. In other words, the only way to get a solid sense of P/I is (a) to simply expose yourself to Spanish that you can understand and (b) to wait.
The imperfect is a late-acquired feature of L2 Spanish. You must be patient as your brain gradually learns when to use the imperfect and when not to. Relying on poor rules-of-thumb for telling the difference between the preterite and the imperfect is NOT going to speed up the acquisition process and may actually
hinder it.
Thanks for reading!
submitted by VGM123 to Spanish [link] [comments]
The Preterite & Imperfect - Post #3
Hello, again!
Now, let's discuss some common problematic rules of thumb about the preterite and the imperfect.
This is going to be a fairly long post, so if you want a TL;DR, skip to the second-to-last section.
Here's a list of some of the most problematic rules of thumb:
- The imperfect describes background actions or describes the scene.
- The imperfect and preterite change the meaning of some verbs.
- The imperfect can be replaced with “used to + verb,” “would + verb,” or “was verb + 'ing'.”
- The imperfect describes emotional activity.
- Certain phrases are used with the imperfect whereas others are used with the preterite.
- The imperfect expresses repeated actions.
- The preterite involves actions with a specific or explicit time frame.
- The preterite is used for punctual events (i.e. events with a single dot on a timeline).
All of these are either half-truths or falsities. As a whole, they're not entirely wrong, but they fail to capture all or even most instances of the proper use of the imperfect and preterite.
Let's look at some counterexamples, shall we?
1. The imperfect describes background actions or describes the scene. This rule is pretty useless as not all imperfective actions describe background actions or scenes.
How do you explain a sentence such as,
“Yo no estaba listo para el examen”? That sentence doesn't involve a background action.
Moreover, how do we even define “background action”? That’s a vague rule of thumb because it’s subjective. What one person interprets as a background action may be interpreted as something else by another person.
A similar issue is present with the "snapshot = preterite" and "movie = imperfect" analogy. Again, it's quite vague and subjective.
2. The imperfect and preterite change the meaning of some verbs. No, not quite. How do you explain the following sentence?
“Siempre quise ser abogado.” “Quise” and its sister conjugations are always said to mean “to try” in the past. Here, that rule of thumb doesn't work very well. Both “quise” and “quería” mean “to want.” The only thing that differs is whether or not the action or state is “completed” at a relevant moment of time in the past.
Here’s another sentence:
“Mis padres nunca quisieron decirme la verdad, así que la escondieron.” Here, it is often said that “quise” in the negative means “to refuse,” but that isn’t always the case. There’s no refusal taking place here. The parents simply didn’t want to tell their child the truth, so they hid it from her.
Here's one final example.
"A medida que ellos se conocieron, se enamoraron."
Those who have read the first post of this series will remember this example. "Conocer" is often said to mean "to have met" in the preterite. Though that interpretation can work sometimes, it won't always work.
It certainly doesn't work at all in this example. This particular sentence means, "As they
got to know each other, they fell in love."
3. The imperfect can be replaced with “used to + verb,” “would + verb,” or “was verb + 'ing'.” This is only half-true. Consider the following examples.
“Yo jugaba/solía jugar al baloncesto cuando era joven.” “I
used to play/would play basketball when I was young.”
“Mientras Ana leía/estaba leyendo el periódico, el teléfono sonó.” “While Ana
was reading the newspaper, the telephone rang.”
These sentences work.
However, you would never say, “When I
used to/would be a kid” or “When I
was being a kid.”
Instead, you would say, “When I
was a kid,” which corresponds with the clause,
“Cuando era niño.” That, and the “was + -ing” rule doesn’t always work. In Spanish, “-ing” verbs can be either imperfect or preterite. Consider the following examples.
“Yo estaba viendo la televisión cuando la apagaste.” “I
was watching the television when you turned it off.”
“
Estuve hablando del partido durante tres horas.” “I
was talking about the sports game for three hours.”
So, what’s the difference, then? The first puts the listener in the middle of the action whereas the second does not.
4. The imperfect describes emotional activity. Nope. Either aspect can be used. Take a look at the two sentences below.
“
Tuve miedo cuando el incendio empezó.” “Ella se puso triste cuando su abuela murió.” If you're trying to express that one past action immediately resulted in another action, then using the imperfect here would not make much sense. Only the preterite would work here.
5. Certain phrases are used with the imperfect whereas others are used with the preterite. No, not quite. “Siempre” is said to trigger only the imperfect, but that's not always the case. How do you explain a sentence such as,
“Siempre supe que tu novio te fue infiel”?
“Siempre” can be used with either aspect. The choice of aspect isn't dependent on adverbs, conjunctions, or phrases, such as “ayer,” “siempre,” “anoche,” “a menudo,” “mientras,” “cuando,” “todos los días,” “de vez en cuando,” etc. It depends on how the speaker wants to convey the action.
6. The imperfect expresses repeated actions. Not necessarily. Both aspects can do that.
“Él me pegó repetidamente cuando éramos niños.” “Él me pegaba repetidamente cuando éramos niños.” Either aspect can convey a repeated action. The only difference is that the second sentence implies that the past action took place regularly whereas the first sentence does not imply that.
7. The preterite involves actions with a specific or explicit time frame. This rule of thumb never really made sense to me, even as a beginner, and it’s pretty easy to see why.
There are plenty of cases where the preterite involves a clear time frame. For example:
“Durante dos minutos, la profesora gritó.”
But, there are also plenty of cases where the preterite does
not involve a clear time frame. For example:
“La tormenta fue horrible. Mis hermanos y yo tuvimos miedo.” There’s definitely a time frame here, but it isn’t explicit at all, yet the preterite is still used.
8. The preterite is used for punctual events (i.e. events with a single dot on a timeline). This rule of thumb is actually not wrong. The preterite is often used for one-time events. However, this rule is not complete because it fails to account for the following sentence:
“Durante varios meses, el tren llegó tarde.” This event is not a single dot on a timeline as “durante varios meses” implies, yet the preterite is used, anyway. Why? It’s because the event is seen as “whole” (i.e. it's expressed in its entirety).
In fact, this rule of thumb seems to be a by-product of flawed rule of thumb #6 mentioned above:
"The imperfect expresses repeated actions." For whatever reason, many learners often have a hard time understanding that events that occur repeatedly within a bounded or closed interval of time can be seen as preterite. This
paper explores that issue in more depth.
Instead, these learners think that “repeated = imperfect” and “punctual = preterite” when that doesn’t adequately cover the entire concept.
For example, if a wife wanted to talk about her late husband, she might say something along the lines of,
“Mi esposo siempre me amó.” This is not a punctual event, but it is seen as "completed," nonetheless.
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Anyway, I could keep providing more counterexamples, but you get the point.
TL;DR -- Basically, you shouldn't rely on rules of thumb to decide when to use these aspects because these rules are often very wrong.
Don’t worry too much about it, though. Even if you screw up the aspects, people may still understand what you mean. You just won’t sound as precise.
As an example, let me share an anecdote with you. When I was a student in high school, I was taking a Spanish 3 class, and we were to write a short story. I wrote mine entirely in the past tense, and because I was a beginner, I randomly chose which aspect to use. As you would expect, my teacher, who was a native, marked most of these verbs as incorrect and wrote down the correct forms. When I asked about why I made the wrong choices, he couldn’t explain it to me. That’s okay, though. He still understood what I meant.
-----
Now, here’s a little exercise for you. Can you decide what appropriate aspect to use for the following sentence?
“Cuando vimos los zapatos nuevos en la tienda, _____ (quisimos/queríamos) comprarlos.” For additional context, a few girls are shopping together at a mall, and they saw a new pair of shoes that looked very cool. Then, they wanted to buy the shoes.
(Hint: See the section discussing flawed rule of thumb #4.)
If you said
"quisimos," you were correct!
Stay tuned for post #4!
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jugar past tense forms video
An easy to use chart of all the conjugations of the Spanish verb Jugar use it online, or your mobile device or go old school and print it out to use as a worksheet. Jugar: Past Perfect Tense. Using the chart below you can learn how to conjugate the Spanish verb jugar in Past Perfect tense. Definition. to play. Want a qualified Spanish teacher to walk you through verb forms? Try a free lesson with a Live Lingua online Spanish tutor. Try a 1-to-1 lesson free PastTenses is a database of English verbs. One can check verbs forms in different tenses. Use our search box to check present tense, present participle tense, past tense and past participle tense of desired verb. PastTenses is a database of English verbs. One can check verbs forms in different tenses. Use our search box to check present tense, present participle tense, past tense and past participle tense of desired verb. Full verb conjugation table for jugar along with example sentences and printable version. Over 1000 Spanish verbs conjugated. Conjugate Jugar in every Spanish verb tense including preterite, imperfect, future, conditional, and subjunctive. Preterite of Jugar. We use the preterite to talk about finished actions in the past. Jugar is regular in this conjugation, except for a small change in the first person, so you will just need to Preterite (Past Tense) Conjugation of jugar – Pretérito (pretérito perfecto simple) de jugar. Spanish Verb Conjugation: yo jugué, tú jugaste, él / Ud.… Select the forms of the verb jugar that best fill in the blanks: A: ¿A qué _____ el fin de semana, Determine what you understand about 'jugar' in the past tense with this worksheet/quiz Imperfect Tense Conjugation of jugar – Imperfecto (de indicativo) de jugar. Spanish Verb Conjugation: yo jugaba, tú jugabas, él / Ud.…
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jugar past tense forms
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